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英文資料
CIM Industry Overview
1. Introduction
"Computer-integrated manufacturing" is the terra used to describe the computer automation of the factory, with all processes functioning under computer control and only digital information tying them together. In CIM, the need for paper is eliminated and so also are most human jobs. CIM is the ostensible evolutionary outcome of computer of computer-aided design and drafting and computer-aided manufacturing (CADD/CAM).
Why is CIM desirable? Because it reduces the human computer of manufacturing and thereby relievers the process of its most expensive and error-prone ingredient. But CIM is, for the most part, an unrealized dream. The application of computer to the activities that make up the manufacturing process occurred in bottom-up fashion; that is, the potential utility of automation was recognized at the working level of organizations long before it came to the attention of management. CADD/CAM was first applied to numerical control (NC) programming on the production side of the factory and to analysis on the engineering side. Later, it began to be used in detail drafting, and now it is being applied to conceptual design. The result has been "islands of automation" in which individual processes are automated without concern for compatibility with one another. The scotch-after productivity has been deferred.
What decisions must management makes to implement CIM? Automation in the factory is still very much a process of Enhancing islands of automation, and few efforts have been made toward their integration’s. The situation will persist until management deals with the four greatest obstacles to integrated
Automation:
The pressure of the pyramid
The prerogatives of the priesthood
The personality of the power tools
The powerlessness of the person
2. The Pressure of the Pyramid
How does a factory work7 Figure 1 is a simple schematic diagram of the
Figure 1 Factory function block diagram
entities and processes. Most CADD vendors and many manufacturing executives believe that this diagram is reasonable abstraction of the factories with witch they come in contact. It depicts well-defined areas of responsibility and authority with simple flows of information, goods, and services. The automation of such a factor would be fast, easy, and interesting.... even enjoyable.
However, the diagram-has a slight flaw. This minor imperfection does little to decrease the popularity of the viewpoint represented by the diagram, but its elucidation will yield important insights into our first CIM obstacle. The flaw is simply this: The diagram is meaningless because it bears no relation to reality. It is worth as much to an organizational analyst as Fig 2 is worth a physician.
In reality, the factory is a seething caldron of emotion, perspiration, nobility,
Figure 2 human body functional block diagrams
foolishness, greed, sincerity, selfishness, idealism, vanity, and generosity. It is a
far uglier sight than a beehive or an anthill, and it is far more difficult to comprehend. Its actual beehive or an anthill, and it is far more difficult to comprehend. Its actual operation is almost impossible to diagram because it is shrouded in a fog raised by the heat of human activity.
How the factory got to be that way is easy to understand: It simply a grew form its origins in an unplanned way. Each added element.... a new machine, new management, a new product line.... caused some turmoil while the organization adjusted to it and ultimately became part of a new equilibrium. Additions that did not "take" were eliminated, or they caused the organization to collapse.
Since CIM involves computers, the computer department is often in the vanguard of CIM implementation planning. Although computer professionals like to think of organizational growth as crystalline, with pure geometric accretions accumulating in well-ordered quanta, the propagation of human organizations is usually messy. Organizations are made up of people, each of whom is self-seeking and self-centered. In addition to their assigned responsibilities and tasks, they develop relationships and procedures to protect and further their interests.
The relationship and procedures are mot documented; not are they derived form the organization's explicit or implicit policies. But no modification of the organization can succeed without taking them into account, just as no surgery can be successfully performed without taking into account the complex network involved in the functioning of the human body.
Almost all organization charts are hierarchical; there is open person at the top and there are many at the bottom of the hierarchy, that is the explicit aspect of the pyramid the hidden side of it comprises the self seeking behavior patterns of the individuals.
Natural principles also are at work. There is the principle of inertia-things tend to stay the way they are. People don't like change, and they will act to keep things changing. At each level the organizational pyramid, equilibrium is maintained. Most organizations start with some consonance between the goals of the organizations and the goals of the individual, but the pyramid always goes into rigidity. Maintaining equilibrium becomes more important than pursuing the goals of the organization. This is the pressure of the pyramid.
3. The Prerogatives of the Priesthood
Computers intimidate people who have not grown up with them. Initially costing millions of dollars and accessible only to specialists, these machines acquired mystical reputations. The metaphors of the computer room as a temple, and of longhaired social misfit programmers as priests are clinches.
But people best suited to working with computers are those who see situations as collections of black-and-white phenomena, yes-or-no decisions. The best programmers are known to be asocial, and they often are antisocial. When these professionals are called upon to create a model of the factory, the model usually winds up having many of the attributes of computer systems. Human needs and idiosyncrasies are generally left out.
Computers have thoroughly infested most companies, but workers are still mystified and frightened by them. The spread and use of computers are still planned and dictated largely by computer professionals, who hate not learned to understand the needs of users. Technical issues overshadow functional considerations in many system design and equipment the arguments of the technocratic. They ate indisputable because of the prerogatives of the priesthood.
4. The Personality of the Power Tools
Achieving CIM requires harmonious interaction with computer at many levels. Most factory personnel will need intensive training in dealing with the particular systems they will encounter. Design engineers must use CADD and CAM systems. However, the computer system in CIM installations will come from a variety o~ vendors. He ways in which users interact with them will be many and varied, and they will necessarily be inconsistent with one another. This raises a tremendous barrier to CIM. For people to use the systems, the personality as the power tools must be congenial and consistent.
5. The Powerlessness of the Person
People need to feel worthwhile. Put them in a situation in which they feel that they have no effect on the organization and they will react with rebellion or depression. In the pyramid of organizational hierarchy, only those neat the top have much influence on the direction of the organization.
Organizations so segment tasks that individuals seldom have the opportunity to see anything through to completion. Products and ideas are thus orphaned and left to fend for themselves. At the same time workers are bereaved of their brainchildren, and they feel sterile and frustrated. As the organization grow rigid with age, people in it feel more an more impotent. Many are impelled to leave. Those who remaining the ossifying structure are concerned with issues of seniority, turf, and pensions.... not productivity.
6. Plucking Productivity from the jaws of Organization
"More output with fewer resources" is a common definition of productivity improvement. It is often applied to the declared goals of organizations. But translating it into action steps for individuals is more than an exercise in management by objectives (MBO); it requires the full cooperation and participation of the individual in the translation process. Without cooperation, the goal cannot be achieved; without participation, there can be no cooperation. The individual must have sense of ownership to adopt the goal.
The four obstacles described above must be overcome if the participation of the individual is to be obtained. First, the pressure of the pyramid must be relaxed or avoided. In Intrapreneuring, Guilford Pinched III discusses the benefits of working within organizations with entrepreneurial techniques. “When any CEO calls for innovations, very little happens. This is not because of a lack of good ideas but because of the working within organizations with entrepreneurial techniques. “When any CEO calls for innovation, very little happens. This is not because of a lack of good ideas but because of the difficulties your difficulty your people have in implementing them. If you are not hearing good ideas, it is because they are blocked or sanitized before they reach you."
Pinchot recommends giving individuals access to the corporate elision so that they can know how to direct their creativity. He then suggests that innovators be rewarded and given encouragement, authority, and resources from what most manufacturers currently do. Without passionate advocates, it cannot become reality. Pyramid rule must be relaxed.
Second, the prerogatives of the priesthood must be abridged. The overriding considerations in the analysis and acquisition of computer based systems must be functional, not technical. Adherence to computer standards must be considered only within the context of the application, not a management upon ad means to ends, not as ends unto themselves.
Third, the personality of the power tools.... the "faces “systems present to user must be congenial and consistent. We must reduce the amount of training and education that C1M will necessitate by working on the least expensive components: computers. People are expansible, and training is expensive; software is inexpensive by comparison. Today's CADD systems are largely uncongenial. Their personalities reflect those of their programmers, who have little in common with the system users. They are consequently head to learn and hard to use.
In Your natural Gifts, Margaret Broadly discusses some of the findings of the Johnson O'Connor Research Center.... Human Engineering Laboratory. This organization has loud, after several decades of study, that people have genetically determined aptitudes. These aptitudes can redeveloped, but not learned.... And people with unexercised aptitudes are bound to feel frustrated. The cluster of aptitudes exhibited by successful engineers includes high structural visualization, good proportions appraisal, and good musical aptitudes. Surprisingly, howler engineers often have low capacities for inductive reasoning. Thus, they are particularly averse to complicated computer tools, which must be "figured out." The engineer's computing tools must be self-evident.
Science there is no generic engineering design methodology, operating procedures vary greatly from one vendor to another. In fact operating procedures often vary within the confines of a single system: Solid-modeling modules are different in their operation from other parts of most CADD systems. Computer graphics comes to the rescue in two important ways, it provides a consistent definition of the product that endures throughout the design, production, and delivery process, and offers a much Boaster information bandwidth for person-machine communications.
Fourth, we must empower the individual within the organization to take up the corporate vision. We must provide room for entrepreneurs to seek and achieve fulfillment of their personal needs in such a way that they will in so doing, further the goals of the organization. We will not get to CIM otherwise.
7. chnology: Is it Ready for CIM?
In the minds of many manufacturing executives, the implementation of CIM awaits the development of proper technologies. But that is not true. Current CADD/CAM technology is equal to the task of fully automating the factory, but it is rarely applied to an entire manufacturing facility. Management has yet to be convinced of the validity of the automation vendors' productivity improvement promises. Computers are employed only in situations in which the short-term benefits are measurable and are likely to be realized. This has contributed to the isolation of the islands of automation.
Integration is still rare. Even the organizations that use ADD/CAM extensively employ hard-copy drawings. In most companies, departments using CADD/CAM must produce hard copy because other departments have no way to deal with digital information. The capabilities of CADD/CAM systems are thus constrained to fit within largely manual operations, and much attention is consequently given to issues such as plot quality, that is irrelevant to CIM.
中文翻譯
計算機(jī)集成化制造的工業(yè)總看法
一、 導(dǎo)論
“計算機(jī)集成化制造”(CIM)是一種只靠數(shù)字信息結(jié)合的，在計算機(jī)控制下所有過程運行的工程完全自動化。在計算機(jī)集成化制造中，不需要紙張，人類工作的大部分也不需要。計算機(jī)集成化制造是計算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計和繪圖(CADD)和計算機(jī)輔助制造明顯進(jìn)化的結(jié)果。
為什么需要計算機(jī)集成化制造呢?因為它減少了制造活動的人類組成部分，從而減少了制造過程中多數(shù)成本高且易出錯的部分。但是，大體上況，計算機(jī)集成化制造仍是一個不可實現(xiàn)的夢想。計算機(jī)彌補(bǔ)制造過程活動的應(yīng)用，發(fā)生在當(dāng)今時代。注意之前一直被認(rèn)為處于工作水平。計算機(jī)復(fù)助設(shè)計及繪圖和計算機(jī)輔助制造首先應(yīng)用于工廠生產(chǎn)方面的數(shù)字控制程序和工程方面的分析，后來，它被用于細(xì)致的繪圖?，F(xiàn)在它被用于理論分析。這中結(jié)果形成了“自動化孤島”。在自動化中， 單個過程是自動化的，而沒有考慮相互之間的和諧性。因此致使生產(chǎn)率進(jìn)展緩慢。
管理人員必須制定什么樣的決策去實現(xiàn)計算機(jī)集成化制造呢?工廠中的自動化仍是增加“自動化孤島”的過程。并且，很少采取措施使它們?nèi)跒橐惑w。這種形式將那就是在自動化的潛在效用引起管理部門的一直持續(xù)到管理人員處理好自動化集成的四個最大障礙：
1．金字塔式的壓力
2．專家的權(quán)利
3．動力機(jī)床的性能
4．人的無能為力
1. 金字塔式的壓力
工廠是怎樣運行的?圖 1是務(wù)實體和過程的一個簡單草圖。人多數(shù)計算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計及繪圖銷售商和生產(chǎn)的執(zhí)行者都相信，這個圖表是他們接觸的一個合理抽象。它用簡單的信息、物質(zhì)和服務(wù)流宋描述責(zé)任和權(quán)利的范圍，像這樣的工廠的自動化將是很快、很有趣、很容易的，甚至是一種享受。
圖1：工廠生產(chǎn)過程圖
然而，這個圖表由一點點小缺陷，這個小缺陷并不會減少這個圖表所代表的觀點的普遍性。但它的解釋將對先前計算機(jī)集成化制造的障礙產(chǎn)生重要的洞察力，這個缺點如下：圖表是無意義的，因為它與現(xiàn)實沒有聯(lián)系，它對一個工廠決策者的作用如圖2對一個醫(yī)生的作用。
計算機(jī)集成化實現(xiàn)的先頭部隊。盡管計算機(jī)專家也愿意把工廠的成長想象成透明的、可以用幾何圖形表示的，以安排好定量積累的方式增大，但人類組織的繁殖通常是巨大的，工廠是由人們組成的，他們中每一個追求私利和自私自利，除了他們分的責(zé)任和任務(wù)，他們發(fā)展關(guān)系來保護(hù)和追求他們的利益。
這種關(guān)系和禮節(jié)沒有用文件形式證明是合法的，它們沒有被組織明確的或含蓄的政策所剝奪。但不把它們考慮進(jìn)去，組織的修改不會成功。沒有考慮包含在人體內(nèi)的復(fù)雜網(wǎng)絡(luò)，外科手術(shù)不會成功一樣。幾乎所有的組織圖表都是分等級的；有一個人在等級制度頂端，有許多人在底部，這個金字塔明顯的方面，金字塔隱含的一面， 包含一個人追求私利的行為方式。自然原理在這里也起作用，慣性作用一一物體總是保持原有的狀態(tài)。
圖2人體機(jī)能圖示
大部分組織以組織的目標(biāo)和個人服務(wù)一致性開始。但是這個金字塔總慢慢變僵化，維持平衡變的比追求組織的目標(biāo)更重要，這就是金字塔的壓力。
2. 專家的特權(quán)
計算機(jī)威脅著那些不了解計算機(jī)成長的人們，最初花費數(shù)百美元只為專家所理解。這些機(jī)器獲得了神秘的聲譽(yù)。計算機(jī)被比喻成神，把用玻璃圍起來的周圍環(huán)境受到控制的計算機(jī)機(jī) 房比作神廟和把長頭發(fā)穿著不合身的程序員比作教士是很合理的。
但是使用計算機(jī)工作的人多時那些把形式看成黑白現(xiàn)象 作決策的人。最好的程序員由于不與人來往而著名，他們常常厭惡社交。這些專業(yè)人員被作為工廠的模范時，這個模范常常像有計算機(jī)許多特征一樣。時時刻刻認(rèn)得需求和特性都被放出 來了。
計算機(jī)已經(jīng)完全應(yīng)用與大多數(shù)公司，但工人仍對他們感到神秘和害怕，計算機(jī)的傳播和應(yīng)用仍由計算機(jī)專家計劃支配， 這些人還沒有了理解用戶的需要。技術(shù)問題在許多系統(tǒng)設(shè)計和設(shè)備選擇過程時使功能考慮相形見絀，在最后分析時，沒有人敢對專家的論點提出質(zhì)疑，他們時無可置疑的是因為他們具有專家的特權(quán)。
3. 動力機(jī)床的特性
獲得CIM需要個層次計算機(jī)之間的和諧作用，許多工廠的工作人員需要集中培訓(xùn)處理他們將接觸的特殊系統(tǒng)。
例如：設(shè)計工程師必須使用CADD系統(tǒng)，而制造工程師必須使用ACDD和CAM系統(tǒng)，然而CIM設(shè)備中的計算機(jī)系統(tǒng)將來自各個領(lǐng)域的賣主，用戶同它們相互之間不一致。這對CIM將產(chǎn)生極大的障礙，對使用這個系統(tǒng)的人來說，動力機(jī)床的特性，必須是一致的和不變的。
若能們需要感到受尊重，把他們放在一個他們感到對工廠沒有影響的環(huán)境中，他們會反抗或沮喪。在金字塔的等級制度中，只有那些頂端附近的人對工廠的方向有影響。
4. 人類的無能為力
工廠如此分割任務(wù)以至于個人很少有機(jī)會完滿辦好某件事，這樣，他們感到枯躁和灰心，當(dāng)這個組織隨時間推移的僵化，人們就感到越來越軟弱無力。許多人被迫離開，那些仍留下來的人是關(guān)心職位和養(yǎng)老盒問題而不是出產(chǎn)率。
二、挖掘工廠的生產(chǎn)力
用比較少的資源得到較多的產(chǎn)品是生產(chǎn)率提高的一種普通定義。這常常是組織所要求的目標(biāo)。但是，對于群體來說，把這轉(zhuǎn)化為實際行動比理論上的練習(xí)要難得多。這要求 在轉(zhuǎn)化的過程中，需要每個人之間進(jìn)行充分的合作和參與。沒有合作，目標(biāo)不能實現(xiàn)；沒有參與，不能有合作。為了達(dá)到目標(biāo)，每個人必須有主動意識。
如果個體的參與被允許的話，有四個障礙必須克服。首先，等級的壓力必須被釋放或者被避免。在《企業(yè)家》雜志中，Gifford Pinched描述了各部門企業(yè)技術(shù)在一起工作的效益。“當(dāng)任何一個首席執(zhí)行官（CEO）要求變革時，沒與人會高興。這不是因為好的思想的缺乏，而是因為在各部門企業(yè)技術(shù)的工作”?！爱?dāng)任何一個首席執(zhí)行官（CEO）要求變革時，沒與人會高興，這不是因為好思想的缺少而是因為困難，你的部下在貫徹策略時有困難。如果你沒聽到好的主意，是因為在你知道前被阻擋或者被凈化了。
Pinchot建議給每個人 都應(yīng)參加到集體中去以至于他們能知道如何指導(dǎo)他們的創(chuàng)造性。他也建議變革家應(yīng)該被獎勵和被鼓勵。從大多的制造者中給予權(quán)利和資源。沒有積極的變革，生產(chǎn)率的提高不能成為現(xiàn)實，等級制度必須被消除。
第二，有權(quán)利的人的特權(quán)應(yīng)該取消。在分析不必的考慮和計算機(jī)基本系統(tǒng)的獲得必須是基本的，不是技術(shù)的。計算機(jī)的水平必須被認(rèn)為只是應(yīng)用的范圍。
第三，掌握技術(shù)的人和提供給有技術(shù)人的系統(tǒng)必須相協(xié)調(diào)，相一致。必須減少訓(xùn)練和教育的數(shù)量，在工作中，計算機(jī)集成化制造（CIM）將是必須的，計算機(jī)不是最昂貴的部件。人是有發(fā)展的，訓(xùn)練是昂貴的；通過比較，軟件是便宜的,今天的CADD很不協(xié)調(diào)。使用CADD的人們反映，他們與CADD系統(tǒng)很不協(xié)調(diào)。最后，導(dǎo)致很難學(xué)很難用。
Margaret Broadley討論了人類工程師實驗室，Johnson O’Connor研究中心的一些發(fā)現(xiàn)，關(guān)于人類的自然能力，這個實驗室是很大的，在幾十年的研究以后，發(fā)現(xiàn)人們擁有遺傳的決定了的才能。這種才能能夠發(fā)展，但是不能學(xué)到。對沒有練習(xí)天賦的人們一定會感到沮喪。成功的工程師所顯示出來的，所以天賦包含清晰度高的結(jié)構(gòu)，恰到好的評價 ，和好的音樂天賦，令人驚奇的是，差的工程師在邏輯思維方面有差的能力，這些人特別不愿意用復(fù)雜的計算機(jī)工具，工程師必須掌握所以的計算機(jī)工具。
科學(xué)沒有一般的工程設(shè)計方法，操作過程變化很大，事實上，在一個簡單的系統(tǒng)中，操作系統(tǒng)也常常變化，實體建模與CADD系統(tǒng)的大部分的操作不同。通過兩種方式使計算機(jī)繪圖得以解放出來，提供產(chǎn)品相一致的定義。
第四，我們必須對機(jī)構(gòu)里的個人給予協(xié)作的權(quán)利，我們必須提供給企業(yè)家尋找空間來滿足他們部下的要求，從而達(dá)到企業(yè)的目標(biāo)。否則，我們就不能實現(xiàn)計算機(jī)集成。
三、技術(shù)：對計算機(jī)集成（CIM）準(zhǔn)備好了嗎？
在許多制造主管的心中，計算機(jī)集成（CIM）對應(yīng)用取決于適當(dāng)技術(shù)的發(fā)展，但是這種思維是不對的。目前，CADD/CAM技術(shù)與工廠的自動化同步發(fā)展，但是，CADD/CAM卻很少應(yīng)用于整個制造領(lǐng)域，管理者已經(jīng)相信自動化可以使生產(chǎn)率有效的提高，計算機(jī)人員只是被用在短期效益能夠測量和有可能被實現(xiàn)的情況中。這引起自動化技術(shù)的孤立。
相互間的結(jié)合自由很少，甚至使用CADD/CAM的公司很廣泛地雇傭硬拷貝畫圖。在大多數(shù)的公司中，使用CADD/CAM的部門必須制造出硬拷貝，因為別的部門沒有處理數(shù)字信息的方法。因此，CADD/CAM系統(tǒng)的應(yīng)用只局限于適合大部分的手工操作，注意力比較多集中于某塊質(zhì)量的提高。這與計算機(jī)集成（CIM）背道而馳。
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