新世紀(jì)研究生公共英語(yǔ)教材B 11 13單元

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1、專業(yè)好文檔 B:第九單元 Animal Emotions Laura Tangley Sheer joy. Romantic love. The pain of mourning. Scientists say pets and wild creatures have feelings, too. 1.Swimming off the coast of Argentina, a female right whale singles out just one of the suitors that are hotly pursuing her. After mating, the

2、two cetaceans linger side by side, stroking one another with their flippers and finally rolling together in what looks like an embrace. The whales then depart, flippers touching, and swim slowly side by side, diving and surfacing in perfect unison until they disappear from sight. 2. In Tanzania, pr

3、imatologists studying chimpanzee behavior recorded the death of Flo, a troop’s 50-year-old matriarch. Throughout the following day, Flo’s son, Flint, sits beside his mother’s lifeless body, occasionally taking her hand and whimpering. Over the next few weeks, Flint grows increasingly listless, withd

4、rawing from the troop — despite his siblings’ efforts to bring him back–and refusing food. Three weeks after Flo’s death, the formerly healthy young chimp is dead, too. 3.A grief-stricken chimpanzee? Leviathans in love? Most people, raised on Disney versions of sentient and passionate beasts, would

5、 say that these tales, both true, simply confirm their suspicions that animals can feel intense, humanlike emotions. For their part, the nation’s 61 million pet owners need no convincing at all that pet dogs and cats can feel angry, morose, elated — even jealous or embarrassed. Recent studies, in fi

6、elds as distant as ethology and neurobiology, are supporting this popular belief. Other evidence is merely anecdotal, especially for pets — dogs that become depressed, or even die, after losing a beloved companion, for instance. But the anecdote — or case study in scientific parlance — has now achie

7、ved some respectability among researchers who study animal behavior. As University of Colorado biologist Marc Bekoff says, “The plural of anecdote is data.” 4.Still, the idea of animals feeling emotions remains controversial among many scientists. Researchers’ skepticism is fueled in part by their

8、professional aversion to anthropomorphism, the very nonscientific tendency to attribute human qualities to non-humans. Many scientists also say that it is impossible to prove animals have emotions using standard scientific methods — repeatable observations that can be manipulated in controlled exper

9、iments — leading them to conclude that such feelings must not exist. Today, however, amid mounting evidence to the contrary, “the tide is turning radically and rapidly,” says Bekoff, who is at the forefront of this movement. 5.Even the most strident skeptics of animal passion agree that many creatu

10、res experience fear — which some scientists define as a “primary” emotion that contrasts with “secondary” emotions such as love and grief. Unlike these more complex feelings, fear is instinctive, they say, and requires no conscious thought. Essential to escape predators and other dangers, fear — and

11、 its predictable flight, fight, or freeze responses — seems to be hard-wired into many species. Young geese that have never before seen a predator, for example, will run for cover if a hawk-shaped silhouette passes overhead. The shape of a nonpredatory bird, on the other hand, elicits no such respon

12、se. 6.But beyond such instinctual emotions and their predictable behavioral responses, the possibility of more complex animal feelings — those that entail mental processing — is difficult to demonstrate. “I can’t even prove that another human being is feeling happy or sad,” says Bekoff, “but I can

13、deduce how they’re feeling through body language and facial expression.” As a scientist who has conducted field studies of coyotes, foxes, and other canines for the past three decades, Bekoff also believes he can accurately tell what these animals are feeling by observing their behavior. He adds tha

14、t animal emotions may actually be more knowable than those of humans, because they don’t “filter” their feelings the way we do. 7. Yet because feelings are intangible, and so tough to study scientifically, “most researchers don’t even want to talk about animal emotions,” says Jaak Panksepp, a neuro

15、scientist at Bowling Green State University in Ohio and author of Affective Neuroscience. Within his field, Panksepp is a rare exception, who believes that similarities between the brains of humans and other animals suggest that at least some creatures have true feelings. “Imagine where we’d be in p

16、hysics if we hadn’t inferred what’s inside the atom,” says Panksepp. “Most of what goes on in nature is invisible, yet we don’t deny that it exists.” 8. The new case for animal emotions comes in part from the growing acceptability of field observations, particularly when they are taken in aggregate

17、. The latest contribution to this body of knowledge is a new book, The Smile of a Dolphin, which presents personal reports from more than 50 researchers who have spent their careers studying animals — from cats, dogs, bears, and chimps to birds, iguanas, and fish. Edited by Bekoff, who says it will

18、finally “l(fā)egitimize” research on animal emotions, the volume has already garnered scientific attention, including a Smithsonian Institution symposium on the subject. 9. One of the most obvious animal emotions is pleasure. Anyone who has ever held a purring cat or been greeted by a bounding, barkin

19、g, tail-wagging dog knows that animals often appear to be happy. Beastly joy seems particularly apparent when the animals are playing with one another or sometimes, in the case of pets, with people. 10.Virtually all young mammals, as well as some birds, play, as do adults of many species such as ou

20、r own. Young dolphins, for instance, routinely chase each other through the water like frolicsome puppies and have been observed riding the wakes of boats like surfers. Primatologist Jane Goodall, who has studied chimpanzees in Tanzania for four decades, says that chimps “chase, somersault, and piro

21、uette around one another with the abandon of children.” In Colorado, Bekoff once watched an elk race back and forth across a patch of snow — even though there was plenty of bare grass nearby — leaping and twisting its body in midair on each pass. Though recent research suggests that play may help yo

22、ungsters develop skills needed in adulthood, Bekoff says there’s no question that it’s also fun. “Animals at play are symbols of the unfettered joy of life,” he says 11. Grief also seems to be common in the wild, particularly following the death of a mate, parent, offspring, or even close companion

23、. Female sea lions witnessing their pups being eaten by killer whales are known to actually wail. When a goose, which mates for life, loses its partner, the bird’s head and body droop dejectedly. Goodall, who saw the young chimp Flint starve after his mother died, maintains that the animal “died of

24、grief.” 12. Elephants may be nature’s best-known mourners. Scientists studying these behemoths have reported countless cases of elephants trying to revive dead or dying family members, as well as standing quietly beside an animal’s remains for many days, periodically reaching out and touching the b

25、ody with their trunks. Kenyan biologist Joyce Poole, who has studied African elephants since 1976, says these animals’ behavior toward their dead “l(fā)eaves me with little doubt that they experience deep emotions and have some understanding about death.” 13.But there’s “hard” scientific evidence for a

26、nimal feelings as well. Scientists who study the biology of emotions, a field still in its infancy, are discovering many similarities between the brains of humans and other animals. In animals studied so far, including humans, emotions seem to arise from ancient parts of the brain that are located b

27、elow the cortex, regions that have been conserved across many species throughout evolution. 14.The most important emotional site identified so far is the amygdala, an almond-shape structure in the center of the brain. Working with rats, neuroscientists have discovered that stimulating a certain par

28、t of the amygdala induces a state of intense fear. Rats with damaged amygdalas, on the other hand, do not show normal behavioral responses to danger (such as freezing or running) or the physiological changes associated with fear — higher heart rate and blood pressure, for example. 15. In humans, br

29、ain-imaging studies show that when people experience fear, their amygdalas, too, are activated. And just like the rats, people whose amygdalas are damaged by accident or disease seem unable to be afraid when the situation warrants it. In humans and rats, at least, amygdalas are “basically wired the

30、same way,” says New York University neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux, whose lab conducted much of the rat research. He adds that beyond fear, “the evidence is less clear, but the amygdala is implicated in other emotions as well.” 16.The case for animal emotions is also bolstered by recent studies of br

31、ain chemistry. Steven Siviy, a behavioral neuroscientist at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, has found that when rats play, their brains release copious amounts of dopamine, a neurochemical that is associated with pleasure and excitement in humans. In one experiment, Siviy placed pairs of rats in

32、 a distinctive plexiglass chamber and allowed them to play. After a week, he could put one animal alone in the chamber and, anticipating its upcoming play session, it would become “very active, vocalizing, and pacing back and forth with excitement.” But when Siviy gave the same animal a drug that bl

33、ocks dopamine, all such activity came to a halt. Neuroscientist Panksepp has found evidence that rats at play also produce opiates–chemicals that, like dopamine, are thought to be involved with pleasure in people. 17.Another chemical, the hormone oxytocin, is associated with both sexual activity an

34、d maternal bonding in people. It is released, for example, when mothers are nursing their infants. Now it looks as though the same hormone affects attachment among animals, at least in the case of a mouselike rodent called the prairie vole. To investigate oxytocin’s role in social bonding, Universit

35、y of Maryland neuroscientist C. Sue Carter targeted the vole because it is one of the few mammal species known to be monogamous. She found that females, who normally spend about a day selecting a mate from a pool of eager males, will choose one within an hour — often the first male they see — if the

36、y have first received an injection of oxytocin. Voles given a drug that blocks oxytocin, however, will not select a mate, no matter how much time they have. Carter concludes that pair bonding in voles relies at least in part on oxytocin, which produces behavior that looks much like people who are “f

37、alling in love.” 18.But is it love, really? Bernd Welsig, the Texas A&M University biologist who observed amorous right whales off the coast of Argentina, believes that, as a scientist, “I should probably call this event a mere example of an ‘a(chǎn)lternative mating strategy.’ “ But Welsig still enterta

38、ins the possibility that the cetaceans behaved the way they did because “they were the ‘right’ right whales for each other.” 19. Skeptics remain unconvinced. “A whale may behave as if it’s in love, but you can’t prove what it’s feeling, if anything,” says neuroscientist LeDoux, author of The Emotio

39、nal Brain. He maintains that the question of feelings boils down to whether or not animals are conscious. And though animals “may have snapshots of self-awareness,” he says, “the movie we call consciousness is not there.” Richard Davidson, a neuroscientist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, agr

40、ees that higher primates, including apes and chimps, are the only animals that have demonstrated self-consciousness so far. Still, he believes that there are other creatures that “may at least have antecedents of feelings.” 20. Or probably more, say Bekoff and his colleagues. Their most convincing

41、argument, perhaps, comes from the theory of evolution, widely accepted by biologists of all stripes. Citing similarities in the brain anatomy and chemistry of humans and other animals, neuroscientist Siviy asks: “If you believe in evolution by natural selection, how can you believe that feelings sud

42、denly appeared, out of the blue, with human beings?” Goodall says scientists who use animals to study the human brain, then deny that animals have feelings, are “illogical.” 21. In the end, what difference does it really make? According to many scientists, resolving the debate over animal emotions

43、could turn out to be much more than an intellectual exercise. If animals do indeed experience a wide range of feelings, it has profound implications for how humans and animals will interact in the future. Bekoff, for one, hopes that greater understanding of what animals are feeling will spur more st

44、ringent rules on how animals should be treated, everywhere from zoos and circuses to farms and backyards. 22. But if there is continuity between the emotional lives of humans and other animals, where should scientists draw the line? Michel Cabanac, a physiologist at Laval University in Quebec, beli

45、eves that consciousness arose when animals began to experience physical pleasure and displeasure. In experiments with iguanas, he discovered that the animals show physiological changes that are associated with pleasure in mammals — a rise in body temperature and heart rate — whereas frogs and fish d

46、o not. He proposes that emotions evolved somewhere between the first amphibians and reptiles. Yet even enthusiasts don’t ascribe emotions to the very bottom end of the food chain. Says Bekoff: “We’re not going to talk about jealous sponges and embarrassed mosquitoes.” 動(dòng) 物 的 情 感 勞拉坦利 非常的開(kāi)心。浪漫的愛(ài)

47、情。悲慟的哀悼?？茖W(xué)家說(shuō)寵物和野生動(dòng)物也有情感。 1.一只在阿根廷海岸附近的水域中游動(dòng)的露脊鯨，在眾多熱烈追求她的求偶者中只選出一名幸運(yùn)兒?！巴昊椤敝?，兩頭露脊鯨并排在水中徜徉，它們用鰭肢相互撫摩，最后又一起在水中滾動(dòng)，看上去就像在互相擁抱。然后，兩頭露脊鯨開(kāi)始游向遠(yuǎn)方，鰭肢相互觸摸，慢慢并排游動(dòng)，一會(huì)潛入水中，一會(huì)又浮出水面，它們動(dòng)作完美和諧，直至最終在視線中消失。 2.在坦桑尼亞，致力于研究黑猩猩行為的靈長(zhǎng)類動(dòng)物學(xué)家記錄了一個(gè)黑猩猩群落中享年50歲的“女族長(zhǎng)”弗洛死后發(fā)生的一些事情。弗洛的兒子弗林特第二天一整天都坐在母親的尸體旁邊，有時(shí)還會(huì)抓住她的手發(fā)出幾聲嗚咽。在此后的幾個(gè)星期里，

48、弗林特的情緒越來(lái)越低落，他離群索居并且不再進(jìn)食，盡管他的兄弟姐妹設(shè)法想讓他回到群體中來(lái)。終于，在弗洛死后的第3個(gè)星期，原本年輕健康的黑猩猩弗林特也死了。 3.悲傷過(guò)度的黑猩猩？墜入情網(wǎng)的海洋巨獸？很多人，由于深受迪斯尼卡通片中感性多情的動(dòng)物形象的影響，會(huì)說(shuō)這兩個(gè)真實(shí)的故事更加證實(shí)了他們認(rèn)為動(dòng)物有人類般強(qiáng)烈情感的看法。從他們的角度來(lái)看，全國(guó)六千一百萬(wàn)擁有寵物的人完全不需要提供什么證據(jù)來(lái)證實(shí)寵物狗和寵物貓會(huì)生氣、郁悶、得意洋洋——甚至?xí)刀驶蚶Ь?。最近在?dòng)物行為學(xué)和神經(jīng)生物學(xué)之類的邊緣學(xué)科的研究證實(shí)了這種普遍看法。其他的證據(jù)只是些軼事趣聞，特別是一些有關(guān)寵物的事，例如狗會(huì)在失去心愛(ài)的同伴后，變得

49、沮喪，甚至死去。但是軼事趣聞——或用科學(xué)的術(shù)語(yǔ)稱之為案例研究——現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)獲得了研究動(dòng)物行為的研究人員的重視。正如科羅拉多大學(xué)的生物學(xué)家馬克貝科夫所說(shuō)：“大量的軼事趣聞就是數(shù)據(jù)。” 4.但是，許多科學(xué)家仍然對(duì)動(dòng)物也有情感的觀點(diǎn)持有異議。研究人員之所以會(huì)表示懷疑，部分原因是他們出于職業(yè)習(xí)慣討厭擬人論，因?yàn)樗麄冋J(rèn)為這是一種將人類的特性強(qiáng)加在非人類生物身上的毫無(wú)科學(xué)根據(jù)的主觀傾向。許多科學(xué)家還認(rèn)為用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的科學(xué)方法（在受控實(shí)驗(yàn)環(huán)境下可進(jìn)行重復(fù)觀察）是無(wú)法證明動(dòng)物是有情感的——這使他們得出結(jié)論，認(rèn)為這些所謂的動(dòng)物情感一定不存在。但是動(dòng)物情感論的積極倡導(dǎo)者貝科夫指出，如今面對(duì)越來(lái)越多的相反證據(jù)，“這場(chǎng)運(yùn)動(dòng)

50、的潮流正在根本性地迅速轉(zhuǎn)向”。 5.甚至連那些對(duì)動(dòng)物情感論持絕對(duì)懷疑態(tài)度的人也承認(rèn)，許多動(dòng)物有恐懼感——一些科學(xué)家認(rèn)為，恐懼是與愛(ài)和悲傷等“中級(jí)”情感相對(duì)的“初級(jí)”情感。他們認(rèn)為，與較為復(fù)雜的“中級(jí)”情感相比，恐懼是一種本能，它不需要任何有意識(shí)的思維?？謶旨捌淇梢灶A(yù)見(jiàn)的逃跑、搏斗或者呆住不動(dòng)的反應(yīng)，是逃避食肉動(dòng)物和其他危險(xiǎn)所必需的，它看起來(lái)好像是許多動(dòng)物與生俱來(lái)的本領(lǐng)。例如，以前從未見(jiàn)過(guò)食肉動(dòng)物的小鵝如果看到形狀像老鷹一樣的黑影從頭頂掠過(guò)就會(huì)馬上跑去尋找藏身處。而另一方面，非食肉鳥(niǎo)的形狀就不會(huì)引發(fā)這樣的反應(yīng)。 6.但是，除了這些具有本能性質(zhì)的情感及其可以預(yù)見(jiàn)的行為反應(yīng)之外，科學(xué)家很難證明

51、動(dòng)物可能擁有更為復(fù)雜的情感，即那些必需有心理活動(dòng)過(guò)程的情感。貝科夫說(shuō)：“我甚至不能證實(shí)另一個(gè)人是快樂(lè)還是悲傷，但我可以通過(guò)肢體語(yǔ)言和臉部表情推論出他（們）的情感?！弊鳛閷?duì)叢林狼、狐貍及其他犬科動(dòng)物進(jìn)行長(zhǎng)達(dá)30年實(shí)地研究的科學(xué)家，貝科夫還認(rèn)為自己可以通過(guò)觀察這些動(dòng)物的行為準(zhǔn)確地說(shuō)出他們的感受。他又指出，了解動(dòng)物的感情事實(shí)上可能比了解人類的感情更容易，因?yàn)樗鼈儾粫?huì)像人類那樣對(duì)情感進(jìn)行“過(guò)濾”。 7.但是《情感神經(jīng)學(xué)》一書(shū)的作者、俄亥俄州立堡林格林大學(xué)神經(jīng)學(xué)學(xué)家雅克潘克塞普指出，因?yàn)楦星槭且环N無(wú)形的東西，而且很難用科學(xué)手段進(jìn)行研究，“所以大多數(shù)研究人員甚至不愿意談?wù)搫?dòng)物情感問(wèn)題”。 而潘克塞普在

52、他的研究領(lǐng)域里是一個(gè)非常少見(jiàn)的例外，他認(rèn)為，人類大腦和其他動(dòng)物大腦之間的相似之處表明，至少某些動(dòng)物擁有真正的感情。潘克塞普說(shuō)：“想象一下，如果我們沒(méi)有推測(cè)出原子中的物質(zhì)，那我們的物理學(xué)會(huì)是什么樣的。在自然中大部分事物的進(jìn)展是看不見(jiàn)的，然而我們并不否認(rèn)它的存在。” 8.對(duì)動(dòng)物情感的接受之所以會(huì)出現(xiàn)新的局面，部分原因是有越來(lái)越多的人愿意接受研究人員取得的實(shí)地觀察結(jié)果，特別是當(dāng)從總體角度看待這些結(jié)果時(shí)。一本名為《海豚的微笑》的新書(shū)為增加動(dòng)物情感方面的知識(shí)做出了新的貢獻(xiàn)，該書(shū)收錄了50多名研究人員撰寫(xiě)的個(gè)人報(bào)告。這些研究人員將自己的整個(gè)職業(yè)生涯都傾注在對(duì)貓、狗、熊、黑猩猩、鳥(niǎo)、鬣蜥和魚(yú)等動(dòng)物的研究。

53、該書(shū)的編輯貝科夫認(rèn)為，這本書(shū)最終會(huì)使動(dòng)物情感的研究變得“合法”。而這本新書(shū)也的確引起了科學(xué)界的關(guān)注——其中，史密森氏學(xué)會(huì)就舉行了一次以動(dòng)物情感為主題的研討會(huì)。 9.動(dòng)物最顯而易見(jiàn)的情感之一就是快樂(lè)。養(yǎng)過(guò)會(huì)發(fā)出咕嚕聲的小貓，或者受到過(guò)邊跳邊叫、搖著尾巴的小狗歡迎的人，就知道動(dòng)物看起來(lái)常常十分快樂(lè)。動(dòng)物相互嬉戲的時(shí)候，或有時(shí)跟人一起玩耍時(shí)（就寵物而言），它們的快樂(lè)好像會(huì)變得特別明顯。 10.事實(shí)上，所有幼小的哺乳動(dòng)物和某些鳥(niǎo)類都會(huì)嬉戲玩耍，正如很多種類的成年動(dòng)物一樣，包括人類也是如此。例如，小海豚就像愛(ài)鬧著玩的小狗，常常在水中互相追逐。人們常常看到它們像沖浪運(yùn)動(dòng)員般追逐在船后的浪花上。靈長(zhǎng)類動(dòng)

54、物學(xué)家簡(jiǎn)古多爾曾經(jīng)在坦桑尼亞對(duì)黑猩猩進(jìn)行了40年的研究，他說(shuō)黑猩猩會(huì)“孩子般盡情地追逐、翻跟頭、踮著腳尖相互旋轉(zhuǎn)”。有一次，貝科夫在科羅拉多觀察到一只麋鹿來(lái)來(lái)回回地跑著穿越一小塊雪地，盡管邊上就有無(wú)雪的草地。它每次跨躍都要跳起來(lái)并在半空扭動(dòng)著軀體。貝科夫說(shuō)雖然近來(lái)的研究表明嬉戲玩耍會(huì)幫助小動(dòng)物培養(yǎng)成年所需要的技巧，而毫無(wú)疑問(wèn)的是，它也會(huì)帶來(lái)快樂(lè)。他還說(shuō)：“玩耍的動(dòng)物是無(wú)拘無(wú)束生活快樂(lè)的象征。” 11.在野生動(dòng)物中，悲傷似乎也很常見(jiàn)，尤其是在失去了配偶、雙親、幼崽，甚至是親密同伴的時(shí)候。比如，當(dāng)母海獅目擊了自己的小海獅被逆戟鯨吃掉時(shí)，會(huì)發(fā)出哀號(hào)。一生只有一個(gè)配偶的天鵝失去配偶時(shí)，會(huì)沮喪地垂著頭

55、和身體。古多爾親眼看到小黑猩猩弗林特在母親死后餓死，他堅(jiān)持說(shuō)小黑猩猩是“死于悲傷”。 12.大象可能是大自然最著名的哀悼者了。研究這些龐然大物的科學(xué)家的報(bào)告中有大量的事實(shí)陳述了大象試圖使死去的或?qū)⒁廊サ募彝コ蓡T復(fù)活，還會(huì)很多天靜靜地站在尸體旁，不時(shí)地伸出長(zhǎng)鼻觸動(dòng)一下尸體?？夏醽喩飳W(xué)家喬伊斯普爾從1976年以來(lái)就研究非洲大象，他說(shuō)，這些動(dòng)物對(duì)待死去的動(dòng)物的行為“讓我?guī)缀鹾敛粦岩傻卣J(rèn)為，它們體驗(yàn)著深切的感情并對(duì)死亡有所理解?！? 13.有一些“確鑿的”科學(xué)證據(jù)也可以證明動(dòng)物有感情。致力于情感生物學(xué)（一個(gè)新生的科學(xué)領(lǐng)域）研究的科學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)，人腦與其它動(dòng)物的大腦之間存在著許多相似之處。科學(xué)家在到目

56、前為止對(duì)動(dòng)物（包括人類）的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，情感看起來(lái)好像是在大腦一些較為“古老”的區(qū)域中產(chǎn)生的，這些區(qū)域位于大腦皮層以下，它們?cè)谠S多物種的進(jìn)化過(guò)程中都得以保存下來(lái)。 14.目前已經(jīng)被科學(xué)家識(shí)別出來(lái)的最重要的情感區(qū)域，是大腦中的扁桃體，這是一個(gè)位于大腦中央的杏仁狀結(jié)構(gòu)。神經(jīng)科學(xué)家通過(guò)在老鼠身上進(jìn)行的實(shí)驗(yàn)，發(fā)現(xiàn)刺激扁桃體某個(gè)特定的部分會(huì)導(dǎo)致實(shí)驗(yàn)鼠處于一種極度恐懼的狀態(tài)。在另一方面，扁桃體遭到破壞的實(shí)驗(yàn)鼠在遇到危險(xiǎn)時(shí)，既不會(huì)表現(xiàn)出正常的行為反應(yīng)（比如呆住或者逃跑），也不會(huì)出現(xiàn)與恐懼聯(lián)系在一起的生理變化——如心跳加快和血壓升高。 15.利用成像技術(shù)對(duì)人腦進(jìn)行的研究表明，當(dāng)人類感到恐懼時(shí)，大腦中的扁桃核也

57、會(huì)被激活。與實(shí)驗(yàn)鼠一樣，由于意外事故或疾病而導(dǎo)致扁桃核受損的人似乎在面對(duì)危險(xiǎn)時(shí)也無(wú)法感到恐懼。在實(shí)驗(yàn)室進(jìn)行了大量鼠類研究的紐約大學(xué)神經(jīng)學(xué)學(xué)家約瑟夫勒杜指出，至少人類和老鼠的扁桃核“基本上采用了相同的‘布線方式’”。他又補(bǔ)充說(shuō)，除恐懼外，“有證據(jù)表明，扁桃核與其他情感也有關(guān)系，但是這些證據(jù)不像證明扁桃核與恐懼有關(guān)的證據(jù)那樣明確?！? 16. 動(dòng)物情感論還得到了最近進(jìn)行的大腦化學(xué)研究的支持。賓夕法尼亞葛底斯堡學(xué)院行為神經(jīng)科學(xué)家史蒂文西維發(fā)現(xiàn)，老鼠在玩耍的時(shí)候，它的大腦會(huì)釋放出大量的多巴胺——人類的快樂(lè)和興奮等情感就與這種神經(jīng)化學(xué)物質(zhì)有關(guān)。在一項(xiàng)實(shí)驗(yàn)中，西維把一對(duì)對(duì)的實(shí)驗(yàn)鼠放在了特殊的樹(shù)脂玻璃“房子

58、”中，然后讓它們盡情玩耍。一星期后，他又把一只實(shí)驗(yàn)鼠單獨(dú)放在“房子”里，期待著馬上就可以再好好地玩上一段時(shí)間的實(shí)驗(yàn)鼠變得“非?；钴S，它不斷地發(fā)出叫聲并且興奮地來(lái)回跑動(dòng)”。但是當(dāng)西維給這只實(shí)驗(yàn)鼠喂食了一種抑制多巴胺的藥物以后，所有的此類活動(dòng)都全部停止了。神經(jīng)科學(xué)家潘克塞普已經(jīng)找到證據(jù)證明，老鼠在玩耍的過(guò)程中體內(nèi)還會(huì)產(chǎn)生多種鴉片劑——科學(xué)家認(rèn)為這些化學(xué)物質(zhì)與多巴胺一樣，也與人類的快樂(lè)情緒有關(guān)。 17.另一種化學(xué)物質(zhì)荷爾蒙催產(chǎn)素與人類的性活動(dòng)和母性有關(guān)。例如，母親培育嬰兒時(shí)體內(nèi)就會(huì)釋放出催產(chǎn)素?，F(xiàn)在看來(lái)這種激素好像對(duì)動(dòng)物之間的相互依戀也有影響，至少在一種與老鼠十分相似的嚙齒類動(dòng)物草原田鼠身上是這樣

59、。為了研究催產(chǎn)素對(duì)社會(huì)依附關(guān)系的作用，馬里蘭大學(xué)神經(jīng)科學(xué)家C休卡特選擇了草原田鼠作為她的研究對(duì)象，因?yàn)椴菰锸笫侨藗円阎膶?shí)行“一夫一妻制”的為數(shù)不多的幾種哺乳動(dòng)物之一。她發(fā)現(xiàn)母鼠一般會(huì)花一天的時(shí)間從一群熱切的公鼠中挑選出一只配偶，但是如果它們?cè)谶x擇配偶之前注射了催產(chǎn)素的話，母鼠的擇偶時(shí)間就會(huì)縮短為一小時(shí)——而且常常會(huì)選擇它們看見(jiàn)的第一只公鼠。然而，如果母鼠服食了催產(chǎn)素抑制藥物，那么不論有多少時(shí)間它們也不會(huì)選擇配偶?？ㄌ赜纱说贸鼋Y(jié)論認(rèn)為，雌雄田鼠之間親密關(guān)系的形成至少部分原因是催產(chǎn)素，這種激素可以導(dǎo)致田鼠做出與“墜入愛(ài)河”的人非常相似的舉動(dòng)。 18.但這真是愛(ài)情嗎？曾經(jīng)對(duì)生活在阿根廷附近海域

60、的“多情”露脊鯨進(jìn)行過(guò)觀察的得克薩斯農(nóng)業(yè)和機(jī)械大學(xué)生物學(xué)家貝恩德伍爾西格指出，作為一名科學(xué)家，“我很可能應(yīng)該將露脊鯨的行為僅僅稱作是“選擇性的交配策略” 的一個(gè)例子”。但是他仍然認(rèn)為，露脊鯨之所以會(huì)有這種行為表現(xiàn)也有可能是因?yàn)椤八鼈兿嗷ブg‘情投意合’”。 19．對(duì)動(dòng)物情感論持懷疑態(tài)度的人仍然堅(jiān)持自己的看法?！肚楦写竽X》一書(shū)的作者，神經(jīng)科學(xué)家勒杜指出：“鯨也許會(huì)做出好像他們正在戀愛(ài)的舉動(dòng)，但是你無(wú)法證明它的內(nèi)心感受，即使鯨有這種感受的話?！彼J(rèn)為動(dòng)物情感問(wèn)題歸根到底就是動(dòng)物是否有意識(shí)的問(wèn)題。他說(shuō)，雖然動(dòng)物“會(huì)有點(diǎn)滴的自我意識(shí)，但是我們所稱的意識(shí)圖像是沒(méi)有的。” 威斯康星大學(xué)麥迪遜分校的神經(jīng)科

61、學(xué)家理查德戴維森認(rèn)為，類人猿和黑猩猩等比較高級(jí)的靈長(zhǎng)類動(dòng)物是迄今為止唯一已經(jīng)表明出自我意識(shí)的動(dòng)物。但是，他仍然認(rèn)為還有其他一些動(dòng)物“也許至少擁有情感的前身”。 20．貝科夫和他的同事認(rèn)為可能還不止如此。他們最令人信服的論點(diǎn)也許是從已經(jīng)為各學(xué)派的生物學(xué)家所普遍接受的進(jìn)化論中推導(dǎo)出來(lái)的。神經(jīng)科學(xué)家西維根據(jù)人腦與其他動(dòng)物大腦在解剖結(jié)構(gòu)和化學(xué)構(gòu)成方面存在的相似之處提出了這樣一個(gè)問(wèn)題：“如果你認(rèn)為生物可以通過(guò)自然選擇不斷進(jìn)化，那你怎么能夠相信人類在進(jìn)化的過(guò)程中其情感是突如其來(lái)的呢？”古多爾認(rèn)為，那些先通過(guò)動(dòng)物來(lái)研究人類的大腦，然后又否認(rèn)動(dòng)物有感情的科學(xué)家的想法是“不合邏輯的”。 21．最后，動(dòng)物有

62、沒(méi)有情感到底有什么重要性呢？許多科學(xué)家認(rèn)為解決動(dòng)物情感爭(zhēng)論的意義也許遠(yuǎn)比一種學(xué)術(shù)活動(dòng)重要得多。如果動(dòng)物確實(shí)有各種各樣的情感，那么它將對(duì)人與動(dòng)物今后會(huì)怎樣互動(dòng)產(chǎn)生意義深遠(yuǎn)的影響。舉例來(lái)說(shuō)，貝科夫就希望對(duì)動(dòng)物的感情了解更多能促使人類在對(duì)待動(dòng)物（不論是在動(dòng)物園和馬戲團(tuán)還是在農(nóng)場(chǎng)和后院）上有更嚴(yán)厲的規(guī)定。 22．但是，如果人類和其他動(dòng)物的感情生活之間存在著延續(xù)性，那么科學(xué)家應(yīng)該把人與動(dòng)物的分界線劃在什么地方呢？魁北克拉瓦爾大學(xué)生理學(xué)家米歇爾卡巴納克認(rèn)為，當(dāng)動(dòng)物開(kāi)始體驗(yàn)身上的快樂(lè)和不快時(shí)，意識(shí)就產(chǎn)生了。在以鬣蜥為研究對(duì)象的實(shí)驗(yàn)中，他發(fā)現(xiàn)這種動(dòng)物表現(xiàn)出哺乳動(dòng)物快樂(lè)時(shí)的生理變化——體溫升高和心跳加快——

63、但是青蛙和魚(yú)卻沒(méi)有類似的變化。他提出，情感的進(jìn)化發(fā)生在第一批兩棲動(dòng)物與爬行動(dòng)物出現(xiàn)之間的某個(gè)時(shí)期。但即使是非常熱衷于動(dòng)物情感的人，也不會(huì)把情感與處于食物鏈最末端的生物聯(lián)系起來(lái)。貝科夫指出：“我們不會(huì)談?wù)摷刀实暮＞d和尷尬的蚊子?！? B：第十二單元 Technology Remakes the Schools Howard Gardner Technology has revolutionized the world in which schools operate. Now it’s time for educators to catch up to change.

64、 1. A human being miraculously transported from 1900 to our time would recognize much of what goes on in today’s classrooms — the prevalent lecturing, the emphasis on drill, the decontextualized materials and activities ranging from banalreaders to weekly spelling tests. With the possible exception

65、 of the church, few institutions have changed as little in fundamental ways as those charged with the formal education of the next generation. 2. Contrast this continuity with children’s experiences outside the school walls. In modern society children have access to a range of media that would have

66、 seemed miraculous in an earlier era (and that still astonishes members of less industrialized societies): television, cellular phones, personal computers with CD-ROMs, fax machines, videodiscs, personal stereos, and still and video cameras. 3. The visitor from the past who would readily recognize today’s classroom would have trouble relating to the out-of-school world of a modern 10-year-old. I confess that I often experience such difficulties myself. 4. Schools — if not educatio