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本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)
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題 目:CA6140車床后托架的加工工藝及夾具設(shè)計(jì)
院 (系):攀枝花學(xué)院機(jī)電工程學(xué)院
專 業(yè):
學(xué)生姓名:
指導(dǎo)教師:
助理指導(dǎo)教師: 職稱 :
1、本課題的研究意義,國(guó)內(nèi)外研究現(xiàn)狀、水平和發(fā)展趨勢(shì)
CA6140車床后托架的加工工藝及夾具設(shè)計(jì)為本課題的研究?jī)?nèi)容。對(duì)此研究查閱的大量的資料,首先明白機(jī)械加工工藝過程就是用切削的方法改變毛坯的形狀、尺寸和材料的物理機(jī)械性質(zhì)成為具有所需要的一定精度、粗糙度等的零件。
為了能具體確切的說明工藝過程,使工件能按照零件圖的技術(shù)要求加工出來,就得制定復(fù)雜的機(jī)械加工工藝規(guī)程來作為生產(chǎn)的指導(dǎo)性技術(shù)文件,學(xué)習(xí)研究制定機(jī)械加工工藝規(guī)程的意義與作用就是本課題研究目的。
①工藝規(guī)程是指導(dǎo)生產(chǎn)的技術(shù)文件,是指揮現(xiàn)場(chǎng)生產(chǎn)的根據(jù)。對(duì)于CA6140車床后托架大批量生產(chǎn),要求在給定的生產(chǎn)條件下,明確生產(chǎn)調(diào)度、技術(shù)準(zhǔn)備、器材配置等安排。為該工件具體的每步工序制定詳細(xì)的加工工藝,并且在保證質(zhì)量的基礎(chǔ)上,要求此工藝過程最經(jīng)濟(jì)合理。
②工藝規(guī)程是進(jìn)行組織生產(chǎn),做好生產(chǎn)技術(shù)準(zhǔn)備的文件。
③在工藝規(guī)程付諸實(shí)現(xiàn)的過程中,根據(jù)實(shí)踐結(jié)果,便于總結(jié)和積累生產(chǎn)經(jīng)驗(yàn)。
同時(shí),在機(jī)械加工過程中,夾具占有重要的地位。它可靠地保證了工件的加工精度,提高了加工效率,減輕了勞動(dòng)的強(qiáng)度。夾具的設(shè)計(jì)過程中,應(yīng)深入生產(chǎn)實(shí)際(對(duì)工件的圖紙、工藝文件、生產(chǎn)綱領(lǐng)等分析),進(jìn)行調(diào)查研究,吸取國(guó)內(nèi)外的先進(jìn)技術(shù),制訂出合理的設(shè)計(jì)方案。
從國(guó)內(nèi)外機(jī)械制造工藝的技術(shù)水平來看發(fā)展較迅速,出現(xiàn)了很多新型的加工工藝技術(shù)。如制造自動(dòng)化:①在形式方面,制造自動(dòng)化有三個(gè)方面的含義:代替人的體力勞動(dòng);代替或輔助人的腦力勞動(dòng);制造系統(tǒng)中人、機(jī)及整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的協(xié)調(diào)、管理、控制和優(yōu)化。②在功能方面,制造自動(dòng)化代替人的體力勞動(dòng)或腦力勞動(dòng)僅僅是制造自動(dòng)化功能目標(biāo)體系的一部分。制造自動(dòng)化的功能目標(biāo)是多方面的,已形成一個(gè)有機(jī)體系。③在范圍方面,制造自動(dòng)化不僅涉及到具體生產(chǎn)制造過程,而是涉及產(chǎn)品生命周期所有過程。
制造自動(dòng)化技術(shù)的研究現(xiàn)狀和發(fā)展趨勢(shì)
①采用模擬技術(shù),優(yōu)化工藝設(shè)計(jì)
成形、改性與加工是機(jī)械制造工藝的主要工序,是將原材料(主要是金屬材料)制造加工成毛坯或零部件的過程。這些工藝過程特別是熱加工過程是極其復(fù)雜的高溫、動(dòng)態(tài)、瞬時(shí)過程,其間發(fā)生一系列復(fù)雜的物理、化學(xué)、冶金變化,這些變化不僅不能直接觀察,間接測(cè)試也十分困難,因而多年來,熱加工工藝設(shè)計(jì)只能憑“經(jīng)驗(yàn)”。近年來,應(yīng)用計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)及現(xiàn)代測(cè)試技術(shù)形成的熱加工工藝模擬及優(yōu)化設(shè)計(jì)技術(shù)風(fēng)靡全球,成為熱加工各個(gè)學(xué)科最為熱門的研究熱點(diǎn)和跨世紀(jì)的技術(shù)前沿。
????②成形精度向近無余量方向發(fā)展
毛坯和零件的成形是機(jī)械制造的第一道工序。金屬毛坯和零件的成形一般有鑄造、鍛造、沖壓、焊接和軋材下料五類方法。隨著毛坯精密成形工藝的發(fā)展,零件成形的形狀尺寸精度正從近凈成形向凈成形即近無余量成形方向發(fā)展。“毛坯”與“零件”的界限越來越小。有的毛坯成形后,已接近或達(dá)到零件的最終形狀和尺寸,磨削后即可裝配。
????③成形質(zhì)量向近無“缺陷”方向發(fā)展
毛坯和零件成形質(zhì)量高低的一另一指標(biāo)是缺陷的多少、大小和危害程度。由于熱加工過程十分復(fù)雜,因素多變,所以很難避免缺陷的產(chǎn)生。近年來熱加工界提出了“向近無“缺陷”方向發(fā)展”的目標(biāo),這個(gè)“缺陷”是指不致引起早期失效的臨界缺陷概念。采取的主要措施有:采用先進(jìn)工藝,凈化熔融金屬薄板,增大合金組織的致密度,為得到健全的鑄件、鍛件奠定基礎(chǔ);采用模擬技術(shù),優(yōu)化工藝設(shè)計(jì),實(shí)現(xiàn)一次成形及試模成功;加強(qiáng)工藝過程監(jiān)控及無損檢測(cè),及時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)超標(biāo)零件;通過零件安全可靠性能研究及評(píng)估,確定臨界缺陷量值等。
????④機(jī)械加工向超精密、超高速方向發(fā)展
????超精密加工技術(shù)目前已進(jìn)入納米加工時(shí)代,加工精度達(dá)0.025μm,表面粗糙度達(dá)0.0045μm。精切削加工技術(shù)由目前的紅處波段向加工可見光波段或不可見紫外線和X射線波段趨近;超精加工機(jī)床向多功能模塊化方向發(fā)展;超精加工材料由金屬擴(kuò)大到非金屬。
????目前起高速切削鋁合金的切削已超過1600m/min;鑄鐵為1500m/min;超高速切削已成為解決一些難加工材料加工問題的一條途徑。
??? ⑤采用新型能源及復(fù)合加工
????激光、電子束、離子束、分子束、等離子體、微波、超聲波、電液、電磁、高壓水射流等新型能源或能源載體的引入,形成了多咱嶄新的特種加工及高密度能切割、焊接、熔煉、鍛壓、熱處理、表面保護(hù)等加工工藝或復(fù)合工藝。其中以多種形式的激光加工發(fā)展最為迅速。???
⑥采用自動(dòng)化技術(shù),實(shí)現(xiàn)工藝過程的優(yōu)化控制
????微電子、計(jì)算機(jī)、自動(dòng)化技術(shù)與工藝設(shè)備相結(jié)合,形成了從單機(jī)到系統(tǒng),從剛性到柔性,從簡(jiǎn)單到復(fù)雜等不同檔次的多種自動(dòng)化成形加工技術(shù),使工藝過程控制方式發(fā)生質(zhì)的變化。????
⑦采用清潔能源及原材料、實(shí)現(xiàn)清潔生產(chǎn)
機(jī)械加工過程產(chǎn)生大量廢水、廢渣、廢氣、噪聲、振動(dòng)、熱輻射等,勞動(dòng)條件繁重危險(xiǎn),已不適應(yīng)當(dāng)代清潔生產(chǎn)的要求。其途徑:一是采用清潔能源,如用電加熱代替燃煤加熱鍛坯;二是采用清潔的工藝材料開發(fā)新的工藝方法,如在鍛造生產(chǎn)中采用非石墨型潤(rùn)滑材料;三是采用新結(jié)構(gòu),減少設(shè)備的噪聲和振動(dòng)。如在鑄造生產(chǎn)中,噪聲極大的震擊式造型機(jī)已被射壓、靜壓造型機(jī)所取代。在清潔生產(chǎn)基礎(chǔ)上,滿足產(chǎn)品從設(shè)計(jì)、生產(chǎn)到使用乃至回收和廢棄處理的整個(gè)周期都符合特定的環(huán)境要求的“綠色制造”將成為21世紀(jì)制造業(yè)的重要特征。
⑧加工與設(shè)計(jì)之間的界限逐漸淡化,并趨向集成及一體化
CAD/CAM、FMS、CIMS、并行工程、快速原型等先進(jìn)制造技術(shù)及哲理的出現(xiàn),使加工與設(shè)計(jì)之間的界限逐漸淡化,并走向一體化。同時(shí)冷熱加工之間,加工過程、檢測(cè)過程、物流過程、裝配過程之間的界限亦趨向談化,、消失,而集成于統(tǒng)一的制造系統(tǒng)之中。
⑨工藝技術(shù)與信息技術(shù)、管理技術(shù)緊密結(jié)合,先進(jìn)制造生產(chǎn)模式獲得不斷發(fā)展
先進(jìn)制造技術(shù)系統(tǒng)是一個(gè)由技術(shù)、人和組織構(gòu)成的集成體系,三者有效集成才能取得滿意的效果。因而先進(jìn)制造工藝只有通過和信息、管理技術(shù)緊密結(jié)合,不斷探索適應(yīng)需求的新型生產(chǎn)模式,才能提高先進(jìn)制造工藝的使用效果。先進(jìn)制造生產(chǎn)模式主要有:柔性生產(chǎn)、準(zhǔn)時(shí)生產(chǎn)、精益生產(chǎn)、敏捷制造、并行工程、分散網(wǎng)絡(luò)化制造等。這些先進(jìn)制造模式是制造工藝與信息、管理技術(shù)緊密結(jié)合的結(jié)果,反過來它也影響并促進(jìn)制造工藝的不斷革新與發(fā)展。
2、本課題的基本內(nèi)容,預(yù)計(jì)可能遇到的困難,提出解決問題的方法和措施
本課題的基本內(nèi)容:CA6140車床后托架加工工藝及夾具設(shè)計(jì)
CA6140車床后托架加工工藝設(shè)計(jì)可能遇到的困難:
制訂CA6140車床后托架加工工藝規(guī)程,關(guān)鍵是工序的劃分和定位基準(zhǔn)的選擇。
工序的劃分 確定加工順序和工序內(nèi)容,安排工序的集中和分散程度,劃分 工序階段,這項(xiàng)工作與生產(chǎn)綱領(lǐng)有密切關(guān)系,具體可以根據(jù)生產(chǎn)類型、零件的結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn)、技術(shù)要求和機(jī)床設(shè)備等。生產(chǎn)條件確定工藝過程的工序次數(shù);如批量小時(shí)可采用在通用機(jī)床上工序集中原則,批量大時(shí)即可按工序分散原則,組織流水線生產(chǎn),也可利用高生產(chǎn)率的通用設(shè)備,按工序集中原則組織生產(chǎn)。
定位基準(zhǔn)的選擇 根據(jù)粗基準(zhǔn),精基準(zhǔn)的選擇原則;遵循基準(zhǔn)統(tǒng)一、基準(zhǔn)重合。由零件圖具體分析可得:CA6140車床后托架首先以一個(gè)側(cè)面和一個(gè)孔為粗基準(zhǔn),對(duì)底平面A進(jìn)行粗加工,再以底平面A為基準(zhǔn)加工孔。
夾具設(shè)計(jì)可能遇到的困難:
工件定位是否正確,定位精度是否滿足要求,工件夾緊牢固是否可靠等等。
工件在夾具中的定位精度,主要與定位基準(zhǔn)是否與工序基準(zhǔn)重合、定位基準(zhǔn)與定位元件的配合狀況等因素有關(guān),可提高夾具的制造精度,減少配合間隙,就能提高夾具在機(jī)床上的定位精度,夾具中出現(xiàn)過定位時(shí),可通過撤消多余定位元件,使多余定位元件失去限制重復(fù)自由度的能力,增加過定位元件與定位基準(zhǔn)的配合間隙等辦法來解決。
夾緊必須可靠,但夾緊力不可過大,以免工件或夾具產(chǎn)生過大變形??刹捎枚帱c(diǎn)夾緊或在工件鋼性薄弱部位安放適當(dāng)?shù)妮o助支撐。
上述即為遇到困難的解決措施。
3、 本課題擬采用的研究手段(途徑)和可行性分析
根據(jù)不同的研究對(duì)象擬采用不同的研究手段(途徑),本課題包括兩方面的內(nèi)容:①CA6140車床后托架加工工藝的設(shè)計(jì) ②夾具設(shè)計(jì)
制定工藝規(guī)程的研究途徑和可行性分析
毛坯的選擇 根據(jù)生產(chǎn)綱領(lǐng)和零件結(jié)構(gòu)選擇毛坯,毛坯的類型一般在零件圖上已有規(guī)定。對(duì)于鑄件和鍛件應(yīng)了解其分模面、澆口、冒口位置和拔模率,以便在選擇定位基準(zhǔn)和計(jì)算加工余量時(shí)有所考慮。如果毛坯是棒料或型材,則按其標(biāo)準(zhǔn)確定尺寸規(guī)格,并決定每批加工件數(shù)。
毛坯的種類和其質(zhì)量對(duì)機(jī)械加工的質(zhì)量有密切的關(guān)系。同時(shí)對(duì)提高勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率、節(jié)約材料、降低成本有很大的影響。CA6140車床后托架毛坯材料為灰鑄鐵(HT150),硬度范圍在150~200HBS,承受中等載荷。采用砂型鑄造方法,由于大批量生產(chǎn)故宜采用實(shí)體模樣(金屬模)進(jìn)行兩箱造型,這不僅簡(jiǎn)化了造型和合箱操作,還因型砂緊實(shí)度較為均勻,鑄件的表面質(zhì)量得到提高。在切削加工前進(jìn)行石墨化退火處理,消除鑄件表層和壁厚較薄的部位可能出現(xiàn)的白口組織(大量滲碳體出現(xiàn))以便進(jìn)行切削加工。
擬訂工藝路線 表示零件的加工順序及加工方法,分出工序,安裝或工位及工步等。并選擇各工序所使用的機(jī)床型號(hào)、刀具、夾具及量具等。擬訂工藝路線從實(shí)際出發(fā),理論聯(lián)系實(shí)際和工人結(jié)合起來。常常需要提出幾個(gè)方案,進(jìn)行分析比較后再確定。
計(jì)算切削用量、加工余量及工時(shí)定額 查閱《切削用量手冊(cè)》等資料并進(jìn)行計(jì)算確定。目前,對(duì)單件小批量生產(chǎn)不規(guī)定切削用量,而是由操作工人根據(jù)經(jīng)驗(yàn)自行選定,但對(duì)于自動(dòng)線和流水線,為保證生產(chǎn)的節(jié)拍,必須規(guī)定切削用量,并不能隨意改變。計(jì)算加工余量、工序尺寸及公差是要控制各工序的加工質(zhì)量以保證最終加工質(zhì)量。工時(shí)定額一般按各工廠的實(shí)際經(jīng)驗(yàn)積累起來的統(tǒng)計(jì)資料來估算。隨著生產(chǎn)的發(fā)展,工藝的改進(jìn),新工藝,新技術(shù)的不斷出現(xiàn),工時(shí)定額應(yīng)進(jìn)行相應(yīng)的修改。
對(duì)機(jī)械加工工藝規(guī)程基本要求可歸結(jié)為質(zhì)量、生產(chǎn)率和經(jīng)濟(jì)性。雖然有時(shí)互相矛盾,但只要把它們處理好,就會(huì)成為一個(gè)統(tǒng)一體。在三個(gè)要求中,質(zhì)量是首要的。質(zhì)量表現(xiàn)在機(jī)械產(chǎn)品的各項(xiàng)技術(shù)性能指標(biāo),質(zhì)量不能保證,根本談不上數(shù)量;質(zhì)量和生產(chǎn)率之間是密切聯(lián)系的,在保證質(zhì)量的前提下,應(yīng)該不斷地最大限度地提高生產(chǎn)率,滿足生產(chǎn)量的要求。如果兩者矛盾,則生產(chǎn)率要服從于質(zhì)量,應(yīng)在保證質(zhì)量的前提下解決生產(chǎn)率問題。在保證質(zhì)量的前提下,應(yīng)盡可能的節(jié)約耗費(fèi),減少投資,降低制造成本,這就是經(jīng)濟(jì)性。
因此,CA6140車床后托架的工藝規(guī)程研究途徑應(yīng)該體現(xiàn)質(zhì)量、生產(chǎn)率和經(jīng)濟(jì)性的統(tǒng)一,達(dá)到經(jīng)濟(jì)合理及可行的最優(yōu)方案。
夾具設(shè)計(jì)的研究途徑和可行性分析
CA6140車床后托架鏜、銑、鉆等工序使用的專用夾具,此類夾具的特點(diǎn)是針對(duì)性強(qiáng)、結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊、操作簡(jiǎn)便、生產(chǎn)率高。
夾具設(shè)計(jì)最關(guān)鍵是要求對(duì)工件定位正確,且滿足定位精度要求。為了解決此問題,首先得了解影響定位精度的因素。然后采取措施解決具體的問題。如定位基準(zhǔn)與定位元件的配合狀況和影響定位精度,那么可以提高夾具的制造精度,減小配合間隙就能提高夾具在機(jī)床上的定位精度。
除此之外,選擇夾具的類型與結(jié)構(gòu)型式必須與零件生產(chǎn)批量大小相適應(yīng),夾具結(jié)構(gòu)與零部件應(yīng)具有足夠的剛度和強(qiáng)度,從而保證夾具操作方便、夾緊可靠、使用安全、并有合理的裝卸空間。
報(bào)告人簽名:賀兵
2006年 4 月 10 日
4、進(jìn)度計(jì)劃
序號(hào)
日期
進(jìn)度安排
1
3月27號(hào)
開始進(jìn)行畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)、熟悉題目及要求
2
3月31號(hào)
設(shè)計(jì)資料的收集及借閱
3
4月4號(hào)
分析研究所得到的設(shè)計(jì)資料
4
4月10號(hào)
方案設(shè)計(jì)、比較
5
4月20號(hào)
設(shè)計(jì)方案實(shí)施(設(shè)計(jì)、計(jì)算等)
6
5月20號(hào)
設(shè)計(jì)、論文整理及修改
7
6月9號(hào)
畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)答辯
8
9
4、 指導(dǎo)教師意見(對(duì)本課題的深度、廣度及工作量的意見和對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)結(jié)果的預(yù)測(cè))
賀兵同學(xué)在畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)選題后,能綜合運(yùn)用所學(xué)的專業(yè)知識(shí)研究、分析設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容,明確所要完成的設(shè)計(jì)任務(wù)和要求。對(duì)該設(shè)計(jì)課題即“機(jī)械加工工藝與夾具設(shè)計(jì)”以及與之相關(guān)的機(jī)械制造技術(shù)當(dāng)今的發(fā)展方向、發(fā)展水平的認(rèn)識(shí)基本正確,對(duì)該畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的初步解決方法,思路基本正確。有關(guān)設(shè)計(jì)所需要的參考資料、手冊(cè)等的查閱、收集基本就緒,根據(jù)已具備的條件,可以進(jìn)行零件的機(jī)械加工藝工規(guī)程設(shè)計(jì)、并依據(jù)所優(yōu)選的零件機(jī)械加工規(guī)程進(jìn)行夾具的方案設(shè)計(jì)等工作。在進(jìn)行過程中,希望該同學(xué)注意保留有關(guān)方案構(gòu)思、計(jì)算等有關(guān)材料,以便后續(xù)工藝卡填寫及設(shè)計(jì)說明書的整理。
指導(dǎo)教師:
年 月 日
6、教研室主任意見
教研室負(fù)責(zé)人:
年 月 日
說明:
1、開題報(bào)告應(yīng)根據(jù)教師下發(fā)的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)任務(wù)書,在教師的指導(dǎo)下由學(xué)生獨(dú)立撰寫,在畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)開始后兩周內(nèi)完成。
2、“課題的研究意義、現(xiàn)狀、發(fā)展趨勢(shì)”應(yīng)不少于1200字,“課題的基本內(nèi)容及研究手段和可行性分析”應(yīng)不少于1000字。
3、本頁不夠,請(qǐng)加頁
畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)任務(wù)書
1.畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)題目:CA6140機(jī)床后托架加工工藝及夾具設(shè)計(jì)
2.學(xué)生完成全部任務(wù)期限:
3.任務(wù)要求:(1)、設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容:制訂年產(chǎn)5000臺(tái)CA6140機(jī)床后托架的加工工藝;
(2)、設(shè)計(jì)主視圖中的三孔的加工夾具;
(3)、設(shè)計(jì)銑底面的夾具;
(4)、設(shè)計(jì)俯視圖中4孔的加工夾具;
(5)、提交夾具裝配圖、零件圖、加工工藝卡片、設(shè)計(jì)說明書及精度分析等相關(guān)設(shè)計(jì)分析結(jié)果。
注意:多人做一題時(shí),設(shè)計(jì)方案、內(nèi)容不能相同
4.實(shí)驗(yàn)(調(diào)驗(yàn))部分內(nèi)容要求:
(1)、查閱相關(guān)資料,分析所給題目的零件結(jié)構(gòu)工藝性,編排出該零件的合理的加工工藝過程,選擇各加工工序的合理的切削用量,計(jì)算各工序的定額,填寫零件的加工工藝卡片;
(2)、完成給定加工面的夾具設(shè)計(jì)(須有方案分析比較、優(yōu)選),每套夾具須完成裝配圖1張,夾具主要零、部件2-3張;
(3)、編寫夾具的設(shè)計(jì)說明書,字?jǐn)?shù)在15000字以上。
5.文獻(xiàn)查閱及翻譯要求:
(1)、機(jī)械加工工藝人員手冊(cè);
(2)、機(jī)床家具設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè);
(3)、機(jī)床夾具圖冊(cè);
(4)、翻譯有關(guān)機(jī)械制造方面10000個(gè)字符以上的外文資料,字?jǐn)?shù)不得少于三千。
6.發(fā)出日期: 2006 年 2 月 18 日
指導(dǎo)教師: (簽名)
完成任務(wù)日期: 年 6 月 9 日
學(xué)生: (簽名)
攀枝花學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)
外文譯文
院 (系):
專 業(yè):
姓 名:
學(xué) 號(hào):
指導(dǎo)教師評(píng)語:
簽名:
年 月 日
外語文獻(xiàn)翻譯
摘自: 《制造工程與技術(shù)(機(jī)加工)》(英文版)
《Manufacturing Engineering and Technology—Machining》
機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社 2004年3月第1版
美 s. 卡爾帕基安(Serope kalpakjian)
s.r 施密德(Steven R.Schmid) 著
原文:
20.9 MACHINABILITY
The machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors:
1、 Surface finish and integrity of the machined part;
2、 Tool life obtained;
3、 Force and power requirements;
4、 Chip control.
Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integrity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone.
Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in the example below.
20.9.1 Machinability Of Steels
Because steels are among the most important engineering materials (as noted in Chapter 5), their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.
Resulfurized and Rephosphorized steels. Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in resulfurized steels.
Phosphorus in steels has two major effects. It strengthens the ferrite, causing increased hardness. Harder steels result in better chip formation and surface finish. Note that soft steels can be difficult to machine, with built-up edge formation and poor surface finish. The second effect is that increased hardness causes the formation of short chips instead of continuous stringy ones, thereby improving machinability.
Leaded Steels. A high percentage of lead in steels solidifies at the tip of manganese sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes the form of dispersed fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and aluminum and their alloys. Because of its low shear strength, therefore, lead acts as a solid lubricant (Section 32.11) and is smeared over the tool-chip interface during cutting. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentrations of lead on the tool-side face of chips when machining leaded steels.
When the temperature is sufficiently high-for instance, at high cutting speeds and feeds (Section 20.6)—the lead melts directly in front of the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant. In addition to this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, reducing cutting forces and power consumption. Lead can be used in every grade of steel, such as 10xx, 11xx, 12xx, 41xx, etc. Leaded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numerals (for example, 10L45). (Note that in stainless steels, similar use of the letter L means “l(fā)ow carbon,” a condition that improves their corrosion resistance.)
However, because lead is a well-known toxin and a pollutant, there are serious environmental concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4500 tons of lead consumption every year in the production of steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend toward eliminating the use of lead in steels (lead-free steels). Bismuth and tin are now being investigated as possible substitutes for lead in steels.
Calcium-Deoxidized Steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidized steels, in which oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSo) are formed. These flakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, decreasing tool-chip interface and wear. Temperature is correspondingly reduced. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds.
Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to machine. Chatter can be s problem, necessitating machine tools with high stiffness. However, ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinability. Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form a built-up edge, and require tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are strong and abrasive, requiring hard and abrasion-resistant tool materials.
The Effects of Other Elements in Steels on Machinability. The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful because these elements combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and abrasive. These compounds increase tool wear and reduce machinability. It is essential to produce and use clean steels.
Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) can produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up edge. Cast steels are more abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels. Tool and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing prior to machining. Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working, which hardens the material and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation.
Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. The effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen can have particularly detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen content, the lower the aspect ratio and the higher the machinability.
In selecting various elements to improve machinability, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strength of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittlement of steels (liquid-metal embrittlement, hot shortness; see Section 1.4.3), although at room temperature it has no effect on mechanical properties.
Sulfur can severely reduce the hot workability of steels, because of the formation of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent such formation. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation of the deformed manganese sulfide inclusions (anisotropy). Rephosphorized steels are significantly less ductile, and are produced solely to improve machinability.
20.9.2 Machinability of Various Other Metals
Aluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades tend to form a built-up edge, resulting in poor surface finish. High cutting speeds, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought aluminum alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive; they require harder tool materials. Dimensional tolerance control may be a problem in machining aluminum, since it has a high thermal coefficient of expansion and a relatively low elastic modulus.
Beryllium is similar to cast irons. Because it is more abrasive and toxic, though, it requires machining in a controlled environment.
Cast gray irons are generally machinable but are. Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating tools with high toughness. Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials.
Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds.
Wrought copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge formation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to machine, especially with the addition pf lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronzes are more difficult to machine than brass.
Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and prolonged tool life. However care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxidation and the danger of fire (the element is pyrophoric).
Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening, so it can produce poor surface finish. Sharp tools are necessary.
Nickel-based alloys are work-hardening, abrasive, and strong at high temperatures. Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels.
Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile, and soft. It produces a poor surface finish; tool wear is high.
Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (indeed, the lowest of all metals), causing significant temperature rise and built-up edge; they can be difficult to machine.
Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive, so its machinability is low, although it greatly improves at elevated temperatures.
Zirconium has good machinability. It requires a coolant-type cutting fluid, however, because of the explosion and fire.
20.9.3 Machinability of Various Materials
Graphite is abrasive; it requires hard, abrasion-resistant, sharp tools.
Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conductivity, low elastic modulus, and low softening temperature. Consequently, machining them requires tools with positive rake angles (to reduce cutting forces), large relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, relatively high speeds, and
proper support of the workpiece. Tools should be sharp.
External cooling of the cutting zone may be necessary to keep the chips from becoming “gummy” and sticking to the tools. Cooling can usually be achieved with a jet of air, vapor mist, or water-soluble oils. Residual stresses may develop during machining. To relieve these stresses, machined parts can be annealed for a period of time at temperatures ranging from to (to), and then cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature.
Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during cutting. Their machinability is generally similar to that of thermoplastics.
Because of the fibers present, reinforced plastics are very abrasive and are difficult to machine. Fiber tearing, pulling, and edge delamination are significant problems; they can lead to severe reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the component. Furthermore, machining of these materials requires careful removal of machining debris to avoid contact with and inhaling of the fibers.
The machinability of ceramics has improved steadily with the development of nanoceramics (Section 8.2.5) and with the selection of appropriate processing parameters, such as ductile-regime cutting (Section 22.4.2).
Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to machine, depending on the properties of the individual components, i.e., reinforcing or whiskers, as well as the matrix material.
20.9.4 Thermally Assisted Machining
Metals and alloys that are difficult to machine at room temperature can be machined more easily at elevated temperatures. In thermally assisted machining (hot machining), the source of heat—a torch, induction coil, high-energy beam (such as laser or electron beam), or plasma arc—is forces, (b) increased tool life, (c) use of inexpensive cutting-tool materials, (d) higher material-removal rates, and (e) reduced tendency for vibration and chatter.
It may be difficult to heat and maintain a uniform temperature distribution within the workpiece. Also, the original microstructure of the workpiece may be adversely affected by elevated temperatures. Most applications of hot machining are in the turning of high-strength metals and alloys, although experiments are in progress to machine ceramics such as silicon nitride.
SUMMARY
Machinability is usually defined in terms of surface finish, tool life, force and power requirements, and chip control. Machinability of materials depends not only on their intrinsic properties and microstructure, but also on proper selection and control of process variables.
譯文:
20.9 可機(jī)加工性
一種材料的可機(jī)加工性通常以四種因素的方式定義:
1、 分的表面光潔性和表面完整性。
2、刀具的壽命。
3、切削力和功率的需求。
4、切屑控制。
以這種方式,好的可機(jī)加工性指的是好的表面光潔性和完整性,長(zhǎng)的刀具壽命,低的切削力和功率需求。關(guān)于切屑控制,細(xì)長(zhǎng)的卷曲切屑,如果沒有被切割成小片,以在切屑區(qū)變的混亂,纏在一起的方式能夠嚴(yán)重的介入剪切工序。
因?yàn)榧羟泄ば虻膹?fù)雜屬性,所以很難建立定量地釋義材料的可機(jī)加工性的關(guān)系。在制造廠里,刀具壽命和表面粗糙度通常被認(rèn)為是可機(jī)加工性中最重要的因素。盡管已不再大量的被使用,近乎準(zhǔn)確的機(jī)加工率在以下的例子中能夠被看到。
20.9.1 鋼的可機(jī)加工性
因?yàn)殇撌亲钪匾墓こ滩牧现唬ㄕ绲?章所示),所以他們的可機(jī)加工性已經(jīng)被廣泛地研究過。通過宗教鉛和硫磺,鋼的可機(jī)加工性已經(jīng)大大地提高了。從而得到了所謂的易切削鋼。
二次硫化鋼和二次磷化鋼 硫在鋼中形成硫化錳夾雜物(第二相粒子),這些夾雜物在第一剪切區(qū)引起應(yīng)力。其結(jié)果是使切屑容易斷開而變小,從而改善了可加工性。這些夾雜物的大小、形狀、分布和集中程度顯著的影響可加工性。化學(xué)元素如碲和硒,其化學(xué)性質(zhì)與硫類似,在二次硫化鋼中起夾雜物改性作用。
鋼中的磷有兩個(gè)主要的影響。它加強(qiáng)鐵素體,增加硬度。越硬的鋼,形成更好的切屑形成和表面光潔性。需要注意的是軟鋼不適合用于有積屑瘤形成和很差的表面光潔性的機(jī)器。第二個(gè)影響是增加的硬度引起短切屑而不是不斷的細(xì)長(zhǎng)的切屑的形成,因此提高可加工性。
含鉛的鋼 鋼中高含量的鉛在硫化錳夾雜物尖端析出。在非二次硫化鋼中,鉛呈細(xì)小而分散的顆粒。鉛在鐵、銅、鋁和它們的合金中是不能溶解的。因?yàn)樗牡涂辜魪?qiáng)度。因此,鉛充當(dāng)固體潤(rùn)滑劑并且在切削時(shí),被涂在刀具和切屑的接口處。這一特性已經(jīng)被在機(jī)加工鉛鋼時(shí),在切屑的刀具面表面有高濃度的鉛的存在所證實(shí)。
當(dāng)溫度足夠高時(shí)—例如,在高的切削速度和進(jìn)刀速度下—鉛在刀具前直接熔化,并且充當(dāng)液體潤(rùn)滑劑。除了這個(gè)作用,鉛降低第一剪切區(qū)中的剪應(yīng)力,減小切削力和功率消耗。鉛能用于各種鋼號(hào),例如10XX,11XX,12XX,41XX等等。鉛鋼被第二和第三數(shù)碼中的字母L所識(shí)別(例如,10L45)。(需要注意的是在不銹鋼中,字母L的相同用法指的是低碳,提高它們的耐蝕性的條件)。
然而,因?yàn)殂U是有名的毒素和污染物,因此在鋼的使用中存在著嚴(yán)重的環(huán)境隱患(在鋼產(chǎn)品中每年大約有4500噸的鉛消耗)。結(jié)果,對(duì)于估算鋼中含鉛量的使用存在一個(gè)持續(xù)的趨勢(shì)。鉍和錫現(xiàn)正作為鋼中的鉛最可能的替代物而被人們所研究。
脫氧鈣鋼 一個(gè)重要的發(fā)展是脫氧鈣鋼,在脫氧鈣鋼中矽酸鈣鹽中的氧化物片的形成。這些片狀,依次減小第二剪切區(qū)中的力量,降低刀具和切屑接口處的摩擦和磨損。溫度也相應(yīng)地降低。結(jié)果,這些鋼產(chǎn)生更小的月牙洼磨損,特別是在高切削速度時(shí)更是如此。
不銹鋼 奧氏體鋼通常很難機(jī)加工。振動(dòng)能成為一個(gè)問題,需要有高硬度的機(jī)床。然而,鐵素體不銹鋼有很好的可機(jī)加工性。馬氏體鋼易磨蝕,易于形成積屑瘤,并且要求刀具材料有高的熱硬度和耐月牙洼磨損性。經(jīng)沉淀硬化的不銹鋼強(qiáng)度高、磨蝕性強(qiáng),因此要求刀具材料硬而耐磨。
鋼中其它元素在可機(jī)加工性方面的影響 鋼中鋁和矽的存在總是有害的,因?yàn)檫@些元素結(jié)合氧會(huì)生成氧化鋁和矽酸鹽,而氧化鋁和矽酸鹽硬且具有磨蝕性。這些化合物增加刀具磨損,降低可機(jī)加工性。因此生產(chǎn)和使用凈化鋼非常必要。
根據(jù)它們的構(gòu)成,碳和錳鋼在鋼的可機(jī)加工性方面有不同的影響。低碳素鋼(少于0.15%的碳)通過形成一個(gè)積屑瘤能生成很差的表面光潔性。盡管鑄鋼的可機(jī)加工性和鍛鋼的大致相同,但鑄鋼具有更大的磨蝕性。刀具和模具鋼很難用于機(jī)加工,他們通常再煅燒后再機(jī)加工。大多數(shù)鋼的可機(jī)加工性在冷加工后都有所提高,冷加工能使材料變硬并且減少積屑瘤的形成。
其它合金元素,例如鎳、鉻、鉗和釩,能提高鋼的特性,減小可機(jī)加工性。硼的影響可以忽視。氣態(tài)元素比如氫和氮在鋼的特性方面能有特別的有害影響。氧已經(jīng)被證明了在硫化錳夾雜物的縱橫比方面有很強(qiáng)的影響。越高的含氧量,就產(chǎn)生越低的縱橫比和越高的可機(jī)加工性。
選擇各種元素以改善可加工性,我們應(yīng)該考慮到這些元素對(duì)已加工零件在使用中的性能和強(qiáng)度的不利影響。例如,當(dāng)溫度升高時(shí),鋁會(huì)使鋼變脆(液體—金屬脆化,熱脆化,見1.4.3節(jié)),盡管其在室溫下對(duì)力學(xué)性能沒有影響。
因?yàn)榱蚧F的構(gòu)成,硫能嚴(yán)重的減少鋼的熱加工性,除非有足夠的錳來防止這種結(jié)構(gòu)的形成。在室溫下,二次磷化鋼的機(jī)械性能依賴于變形的硫化錳夾雜物的定位(各向異性)。二次磷化鋼具有更小的延展性,被單獨(dú)生成來提高機(jī)加工性。
20.9.2 其它不同金屬的機(jī)加工性
盡管越軟的品種易于生成積屑瘤,但鋁通常很容易被機(jī)加工,導(dǎo)致了很差的表面光潔性。高的切削速度,高的前角和高的后角都被推薦了。有高含量的矽的鍛鋁合金鑄鋁合金也許具有磨蝕性,它們要求更硬的刀具材料。尺寸公差控制也許在機(jī)加工鋁時(shí)會(huì)成為一個(gè)問題,因?yàn)樗信蛎浀母邔?dǎo)熱系數(shù)和相對(duì)低的彈性模數(shù)。
鈹和鑄鐵相同。因?yàn)樗吣ノg性和毒性,盡管它要求在可控人工環(huán)境下進(jìn)行機(jī)加工。
灰鑄鐵普遍地可加工,但也有磨蝕性。鑄造無中的游離碳化物降低它們的可機(jī)加工性,引起刀具切屑或裂口。它需要具有強(qiáng)韌性的工具。具有堅(jiān)硬的刀具材料的球墨鑄鐵和韌性鐵是可加工的。
鈷基合金有磨蝕性且高度加工硬化的。它們要求尖的且具有耐蝕性的刀具材料并且有低的走刀和速度。
盡管鑄銅合金很容易機(jī)加工,但因?yàn)殄戙~的積屑瘤形成因而鍛銅很難機(jī)加工。黃銅很容易機(jī)加工,特別是有添加的鉛更容易。青銅比黃銅更難機(jī)加工。
鎂很容易機(jī)加工,鎂既有很好的表面光潔性和長(zhǎng)久的刀具壽命。然而,因?yàn)楦叩难趸俣群突鸱N的危險(xiǎn)(這種元素易燃),因此我們應(yīng)該特別小心使用它。
鉗易拉長(zhǎng)且加工硬化,因此它生成很差的表面光潔性。尖的刀具是很必要的。
鎳基合金加工硬化,具有磨蝕性,且在高溫下非常堅(jiān)硬。它的可機(jī)加工性和不銹鋼相同。
鉭非常的加工硬化,具有可延性且柔軟。它生成很差的表面光潔性且刀具磨損非常大。
鈦和它的合金導(dǎo)熱性(的確,是所有金屬中最低的),因此引起明顯的溫度升高和積屑瘤。它們是難機(jī)加工的。
鎢易脆,堅(jiān)硬,且具有磨蝕性,因此盡管它的性能在高溫下能大大提高,但它的機(jī)加工性仍很低。
鋯有很好的機(jī)加工性。然而,因?yàn)橛斜ê突鸱N的危險(xiǎn)性,它要求有一個(gè)冷卻性質(zhì)好的切削液。
20.9.3 各種材料的機(jī)加工性
石墨具有磨蝕性。它要求硬的、尖的,具有耐蝕性的刀具。
塑性塑料通常有低的導(dǎo)熱性,低的彈性模數(shù)和低的軟化溫度。因此,機(jī)加工熱塑性塑料要求有正前角的刀具(以此降低切削力),還要求有大的后角,小的切削和走刀深的,相對(duì)高的速度和工件的正確支承。刀具應(yīng)該很尖。
切削區(qū)的外部冷卻也許很必要,以此來防止切屑變的有黏性且粘在刀具上。有了空氣流,汽霧或水溶性油,通常就能實(shí)現(xiàn)冷卻。在機(jī)加工時(shí),殘余應(yīng)力也許能生成并發(fā)展。為了解除這些力,已機(jī)加工的部分要在()的溫度范圍內(nèi)冷卻一段時(shí)間,然而慢慢地?zé)o變化地冷卻到室溫。
熱固性塑料易脆,并且在切削時(shí)對(duì)熱梯度很敏感。它的機(jī)加工性和熱塑性塑料的相同。
因?yàn)槔w維的存在,加強(qiáng)塑料具有磨蝕性,且很難機(jī)加工。纖維的撕裂、拉出和邊界分層是非常嚴(yán)重的問題。它們能導(dǎo)致構(gòu)成要素的承載能力大大下降。而且,這些材料的機(jī)加工要求對(duì)加工殘片仔細(xì)切除,以此來避免接觸和吸進(jìn)纖維。
隨著納米陶瓷(見8.2.5節(jié))的發(fā)展和適當(dāng)?shù)膮?shù)處理的選擇,例如塑性切削(見22.4.2節(jié)),陶瓷器的可機(jī)加工性已大大地提高了。
金屬基復(fù)合材料和陶瓷基復(fù)合材料很能機(jī)加工,它們依賴于單獨(dú)的成分的特性,比如說增強(qiáng)纖維或金屬須和基體材料。
20.9.4 熱輔助加工
在室溫下很難機(jī)加工的金屬和合金在高溫下能更容易地機(jī)加工。在熱輔助加工時(shí)(高溫切削),熱源—一個(gè)火把,感應(yīng)線圈,高能束流(例如雷射或電子束),或等離子弧—被集中在切削刀具前的一塊區(qū)域內(nèi)。好處是:(a)低的切削力。(b)增加的刀具壽命。(c)便宜的切削刀具材料的使用。(d)更高的材料切除率。(e)減少振動(dòng)。
也許很難在工件內(nèi)加熱和保持一個(gè)不變的溫度分布。而且,工件的最初微觀結(jié)構(gòu)也許被高溫影響,且這種影響是相當(dāng)有害的。盡管實(shí)驗(yàn)在進(jìn)行中,以此來機(jī)加工陶瓷器如氮化矽,但高溫切削仍大多數(shù)應(yīng)用在高強(qiáng)度金屬和高溫度合金的車削中。
小結(jié)
通常,零件的可機(jī)加工性能是根據(jù)以下因素來定義的:表面粗糙度,刀具的壽命,切削力和功率的需求以及切屑的控制。材料的可機(jī)加工性能不僅取決于起內(nèi)在特性和微觀結(jié)構(gòu),而且也依賴于工藝參數(shù)的適當(dāng)選擇與控制。